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ill respond to reduced yields and increased costs of food is a critical research need arising from this study. Will pit bull pitbullvengers marvel avengers dogs lover shirt such countries be able to import large amounts of food? Will the burden for adaptation be passed on to the poorest? From a political and social standpoint, the results of the study indicate

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protection and recreation on tropical coral reefs are high, especially given the vulnerability of this ecosystem type, and others , seagrass and mangroves, to climate change ure .. Coastal protection is a service provided by natural barriers such as mangroves, seagrass meadows, coral reefs, and other coastal ecosystems, and it is important for protecting human communities and infrastructure against the impacts associated with rising sea levels, larger waves and intensifying storms . Both natural and human coastal protection have the potential to reduce these impacts . Tropical coral reefs, for example, provide effective protection by dissipating about of wave energy, with of the energy being dissipated pit bull pitbullvengers marvel avengers dogs lover shirt by reef crests alone Ferrario , Narayan . Mangroves similarly play an important role in coastal protection, as well as providing resources for coastal communities, but they are already under moderate risk of not keeping up with sea level rise due to climate change and to contributing factors, such as reduced sediment supply or obstacles to shoreward shifts Saunders , Lovelock . This implies that coastal areas currently protected by mangroves may experience growing risks over time. The impacts of climate change on sea ice are part of the focus of the IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate , due to be released in , and hence are not covered comprehensively here.

However, there is a range of responses to the loss of sea ice that are occurring and which increase at . and further so with of global warming. Some of these changes are described briefly here. Photosynthetic communities, such macroalgae, phytoplankton and microalgae dwelling on the underside of floating sea ice are changing, owing to increased temperatures, light and nutrient levels. As sea ice retreats, mixing of the water column increases, and phototrophs have increased access to seasonally high levels of solar radiation. These changes are expected to stimulate fisheries productivity in high-latitude regions by mid-century Cheung , b; Lam , with evidence that this is already happening for several high-latitude fisheries in the Northern Hemisphere, such as the Bering Sea, although these ‘positive’ impacts may be relatively short-lived Hollowed and Sundby, Sundby . In addition to the impact of climate change on fisheries via impacts on net primary productivity , there are also direct effects of temperature on fish, which may in turn have a range of impacts Pörtner . Sea ice in Antarctica is undergoing changes that exceed those seen in the Arctic  , with increases in sea ice coverage in the western Ross Sea being accompanied by strong decreases in the Bellingshausen and Amundsen Seas Hobbs . While Antarctica is not permanently populated, the ramifications of changes to the productivity of vast regions, such as the Southern Ocean, have substantial implications for ocean foodwebs and fisheries globally. Regarding the continental scale, Donnelly and Thober explored climate change impacts on European high flows andor floods under ., and of global warming. Thober identified the Mediterranean region as a hotspot of change, with significant decreases in high flows, respectively, mainly resulting from reduced precipitation Box .. In northern regions, high flows are projected to rise by and at . and , respectively, owing to increasing precipitation, although floods could decrease by in both scenarios because of less snowmelt. Donnelly found that high runoff levels could rise in intensity, robustness and spatial extent over large parts of continental Europe with an increasing warming level. At , flood magnitudes are expected to increase significantly in Europe south of °N, except for some regions ; in contrast, they are projected to decrease at higher latitudes , in most of Finland, northwestern Russia and northern Sweden, with the exception of southern Sweden and some coastal areas in Norway where flood magnitudes may increase Roudier . At the basin scale, Mohammed found that floods are projected to be more frequent and flood magnitudes greater at than at . in the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh. In coastal regions, increases in heavy precipitation associated with tropical cyclones Section .. combined with increased sea levels Section .. may lead to increased flooding Section … Determining how countries, particularly developing countries, can and w

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