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induced or natural perturbations. Houghton estimate about Mha could be available for the re-establishment of forests on lands previously forested, but not currently used productively. This could sequester at least . yr− for decades. The full literature range gives potentials of narrowed down to . based on a number of constraints Fuss . Abatement costs are estimated to be low compared to other Yet, realizing such large potentials comes at higher land and water footprints than BECCS, although there would be a positive impact on nutrients and the energy requirement would be negligible Smith Cross-Chapter Box in Chapter . The estimate by for reforestation with significant co-benefits Cross-Chapter Box in A wide range of options to reduce SLCF emissions was knights templar order of the dragon cross and dragon shirt extensively discussed in AR . Fossil fuel and waste sector methane mitigation options have high cost-effectiveness, producing a net profit over a few years, considering market costs only. Moreover, reducing roughly one-third to onealf of all human-caused emissions has societal benefits greater than mitigation costs when considering environmental impacts only Since AR, new options for methane, such as those related to shale gas, have been included in mitigation portfolios ,
Shindell , a. To improve climate change governance in the region, Pittman suggest incorporating holistic and integrated management systems, improving flexibility in collaborative processes, implementing monitoring programs, and increasing the capacity of local authorities. Implementation of the Sustainable Development Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals can contribute to addressing the risks related with extreme events Chapter , Box .. Educational adaptation options motivate adaptation through building awareness Butler , Myers , leveraging multiple knowledge systems , developing participatory action research and social learning processes Butler and strengthening extension services, and building mechanisms for learning and knowledge sharing through community-based platforms, international conferences and knowledge networks . Low-emission hydrogen can be produced by natural gas with CCS, by electrolysis of water powered by zero-emission electricity, or potentially in the future by generation IV nuclear reactors. Feasibility of electrification and use of hydrogen in production processes or fuel cells is affected by technical development , by geophysical factors related to the availability of low-emission electricity , by associated public perception and by economic feasibility, except in areas with ample solar andor wind resources. The deficit in building codes and standards in middle-income and developing-country cities need not be a constraint to more energy-efficient and resilient buildings Tait and Euston-Brown. For example, the relatively high price that poor households pay for unreliable and at times dangerous household energy in African cities has driven the uptake of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies in the absence of regulations or fiscal incentives Eberhard , Cartwright, Watkins. The Kuyasa Housing Project in Khayelitsha, one of Cape Town’s poorest suburbs, created significant mitigation and adaptation benefits by installing ceilings, solar water heaters and energy-efficient lightbulbs in houses independent of the formal housing or electrification programme . Urban economies tend to be more energy intensive than national economies due to higher levels of per capita income, mobility and consumption Kennedy , Broto, Gota . However, some urban systems have begun decoupling development from the consumption of fossil fuel-powered energy through energy efficiency, renewable energy and locally managed smart grids and Newman. The extent to which agroforestry practices employed at the farm level could be scaled up globally while satisfying growing food demand is relatively unknown. Agroforestry adoption has been relatively low and uneven Jacobi , Hernández-Morcillo , with constraints including the expense of establishment and lack of reliable financial support, insecure land tenure, landowner’s lack of e
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